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The evidence is mounting: Humans were responsible for the extinction of large mammals
by Peter F. Gammelby, Aarhus University
The debate has raged for decades: Was it humans or climate change that led to the extinction of many species of large mammals, birds, and reptiles that have disappeared from Earth over the past 50,000 years?
By “large,” we mean animals that weighed at least 45 kilograms—known as megafauna. At least 161 species of mammals were driven to extinction during this period. This number is based on the remains found so far.
The largest of them were hit the hardest—land-dwelling herbivores weighing over a ton, the megaherbivores. Fifty thousand years ago, there were 57 species of megaherbivores. Today, only 11 remain. These remaining 11 species have also seen drastic declines in their populations, but not to the point of complete extinction.
A research group from the Danish National Research Foundation’s Center for Ecological Dynamics in a Novel Biosphere (ECONOVO) at Aarhus University now concludes that many of these vanished species were hunted to extinction by humans.
They present this conclusion in a review article invited by and published in the journal Cambridge Prisms: Extinction. A review article synthesizes and analyses existing research within a particular field.
In this case, the researchers from Aarhus University incorporated several research fields, including studies directly related to the extinction of large animals, such as:
- The timing of species extinctions
- The animals’ dietary preferences
- Climate and habitat requirements
- Genetic estimates of past population sizes
- Evidence of human hunting
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Additionally, they included a wide range of studies from other fields necessary to understand the phenomenon, such as:
- Climate history over the past 1–3 million years
- Vegetation history over the past 1–3 million years
- Evolution and dynamics of fauna over the past 66 million years
- Archaeological data on human expansion and lifestyle, including dietary preferences
Climate change played a lesser role
The dramatic climate changes during the last interglacial and glacial periods (known as the late Pleistocene, from 130,000 to 11,000 years ago) certainly affected populations and distributions of both large and small animals and plants worldwide. However, significant extinctions were observed only among the large animals, particularly the largest ones.
An important observation is that the previous, equally dramatic ice ages and interglacials over the past couple of million years did not cause a selective loss of megafauna. Especially at the beginning of the glacial periods, the new cold and dry conditions caused large-scale extinctions in some regions, such as trees in Europe. However, there were no selective extinctions of large animals.
“The large and very selective loss of megafauna over the last 50,000 years is unique over the past 66 million years. Previous periods of climate change did not lead to large, selective extinctions, which argues against a major role for climate in the megafauna extinctions,” says Professor Jens-Christian Svenning. He leads ECONOVO and is the lead author of the article.
He adds, “Another significant pattern that argues against a role for climate is that the recent megafauna extinctions hit just as hard in climatically stable areas as in unstable areas.”
Effective hunters and vulnerable giants
Archaeologists have found traps designed for very large animals, and isotope analyses of ancient human bones and protein residues from spear points show that they hunted and ate the largest mammals.
Svenning adds, “Early modern humans were effective hunters of even the largest animal species and clearly had the ability to reduce the populations of large animals. These large animals were and are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation because they have long gestation periods, produce very few offspring at a time, and take many years to reach sexual maturity.”
The analysis shows that human hunting of large animals such as mammoths, mastodons, and giant sloths was widespread and consistent across the world.
It also shows that the species went extinct at very different times and at different rates around the world. In some local areas, it happened quite quickly, while in other places it took over 10,000 years. But everywhere, it occurred after modern humans arrived, or in Africa’s case, after cultural advancements among humans.
Species went extinct on all continents except Antarctica and in all types of ecosystems, from tropical forests and savannas to Mediterranean and temperate forests and steppes to arctic ecosystems.
“Many of the extinct species could thrive in various types of environments. Therefore, their extinction cannot be explained by climate changes causing the disappearance of a specific ecosystem type, such as the mammoth steppe—which also housed only a few megafauna species,” explains Svenning.
“Most of the species existed under temperate to tropical conditions and should actually have benefited from the warming at the end of the last ice age.”
Consequences and recommendations
The researchers point out that the loss of megafauna has had profound ecological consequences. Large animals play a central role in ecosystems by influencing vegetation structure (e.g., the balance between dense forests and open areas), seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling. Their disappearance has resulted in significant changes in ecosystem structures and functions.
“Our results highlight the need for active conservation and restoration efforts. By reintroducing large mammals, we can help restore ecological balances and support biodiversity, which evolved in ecosystems rich in megafauna,” says Svenning.
More information: Jens-Christian Svenning et al, The late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions: Patterns, causes, ecological consequences and implications for ecosystem management in the Anthropocene, Cambridge Prisms: Extinction (2024). DOI: 10.1017/ext.2024.4
The numbers of extinct and surviving species come from the freely accessible database PHYLACINE 1.2.1, which lists all known mammals that have lived in the past 129,000 years, including those that have gone extinct recently or are only found in captivity.
Journal information: Cambridge Prisms: Extinction
Western heat wave to break records, raise wildfire risks
At least 87 people feared dead in stampede at religious event in India, NDTV reports
At least 87 people feared dead in stampede at religious event in India, NDTV reports
Story by Reuters
• 48m • 1 min read
Family members react outside the Etah Hospital after a stampede at a religious event in Etah, Uttar Pradesh, India, July 2, 2024. ANI/ Via Reuters TV© Thomson Reuters
NEW DELHI (Reuters) -At least 87 people were feared dead in a stampede at a Hindu religious gathering in India’s northern state of Uttar Pradesh on Tuesday, broadcaster NDTV reported.
The stampede happened in a village in Hathras district, about 200 km (125 miles) southeast of the national capital New Delhi, where authorities said a large crowd had gathered on an area of open ground in response to a call from a local religious leader.
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District police spokesperson Manish Chikara put the death toll at about 60 people, but said that figure may rise.
Videos on social media showed bodies piled up on the ground outside a local hospital. Reuters could not immediately verify the images.
“The incident happened due to overcrowding at the time when people were trying to leave the venue,” Hathras district administrator Ashish Kumar told reporters.
An unidentified witness told broadcaster India Today that there was a narrow exit at the venue: “As we tried to exit towards a field, suddenly a commotion started, and we didn’t know what to do.”
Uttar Pradesh is India’s most populous state with more than 200 million people. Its Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath ordered an investigation.
“Instructions have been given to the concerned officials to conduct relief and rescue operations on war footing and to provide proper treatment to the injured,” he posted on X.
(Reporting by Saurabh Sharma, Sudipto Ganguly, Shivam Patel; Editing by YP Rajesh and Sharon Singleton)
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NEW DELHI (Reuters) -At least 87 people were feared dead in a stampede at a Hindu religious gathering in India’s northern state of Uttar Pradesh on Tuesday, broadcaster NDTV reported.
The stampede happened in a village in Hathras district, about 200 km (125 miles) southeast of the national capital New Delhi, where authorities said a large crowd had gathered on an area of open ground in response to a call from a local religious leader.
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District police spokesperson Manish Chikara put the death toll at about 60 people, but said that figure may rise.
Videos on social media showed bodies piled up on the ground outside a local hospital. Reuters could not immediately verify the images.
“The incident happened due to overcrowding at the time when people were trying to leave the venue,” Hathras district administrator Ashish Kumar told reporters.
An unidentified witness told broadcaster India Today that there was a narrow exit at the venue: “As we tried to exit towards a field, suddenly a commotion started, and we didn’t know what to do.”
Uttar Pradesh is India’s most populous state with more than 200 million people. Its Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath ordered an investigation.
“Instructions have been given to the concerned officials to conduct relief and rescue operations on war footing and to provide proper treatment to the injured,” he posted on X.
(Reporting by Saurabh Sharma, Sudipto Ganguly, Shivam Patel; Editing by YP Rajesh and Sharon Singleton)
2 men were arrested on public road within Oprah’s Hawaii ranch. They’re suspected of illegal hunting
by: Associated Press
Posted: Jul 1, 2024 / 10:44 PM CDT
Updated: Jul 1, 2024 / 10:46 PM CDT
SHARE https://whnt.com/entertainment-news/ap-entertainment/ap-2-men-were-arrested-on-a-road-within-oprahs-hawaii-ranch-theyre-suspected-of-illegal-hunting/
KULA, Hawaii (AP) — Two men arrested last month on a public road within Oprah Winfrey ‘s property on the Hawaiian island of Maui are suspected of illegal night hunting, state officials said Monday.
The two Maui men, both 19, were arrested just before midnight on June 21 after officers found them using a hunting spotlight on a public road that runs through Winfrey’s ranch in Kula, the state Department of Land and Natural Resources said in a news release.
While they were not caught actively hunting, officers found a loaded shotgun and a loaded rifle in the pair’s truck, and Winfrey’s ranch surrounds the road where they were stopped, the state said.
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The men were arrested on suspicion of hunting on private lands without permission, not having a hunting license and other violations. One of them was also arrested for an unregistered semi-automatic rifle.
Invasive axis deer run rampant on Maui and other islands of Hawaii.
Maui County prosecutors will review the case and determine if there will be charges. Records show the men were released pending investigation, county officials said.
“Last month, DLNR reached out to Upcountry ranchers regarding their efforts to prevent illegal poaching throughout the area and we agreed to cooperate. The arrests did not happen on the property,” Winfrey’s production company, Harpo, said Monday in an emailed statement.
Great megafauna mystery solved? Humans really did drive ancient giants to extinction
•https://studyfinds.org/humans-ancient-giants-extinction/
Reviewed by Steve Fink
Research led by Jens-Christian Svenning, Aarhus University
Jul 01, 2024
FACT CHECKED
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Prehistoric humans hunt a woolly mammoth. More and more research shows that this species – and at least 46 other species of megaherbivores – were driven to extinction by humans. (CREDIT: Engraving by Ernest Grise, photographed by William Henry Jackson. Courtesy Getty’s Open Content Program)
AARHUS, Denmark — Imagine a world where elephants roamed across Europe, giant ground sloths lumbered through the Americas, and car-sized armadillos burrowed in South American grasslands. This wasn’t some fantastical realm from a Hollywood movie — it was Earth just 50,000 years ago. But then something happened. These megafauna — animals weighing over 100 pounds — began to disappear. By 10,000 years ago, most were gone forever.
What caused this mass extinction event that reshaped life on our planet? It’s a question that has puzzled scientists for over 200 years. Now, an international team of researchers has conducted an exhaustive review of the evidence, concluding that prehistoric humans were likely the primary culprits behind the downfall of Earth’s giants.
The study, led by scientists from the Danish National Research Foundation’s Center for Ecological Dynamics in a Novel Biosphere (ECONOVO) at Aarhus University, analyzed patterns of megafauna extinctions across continents and time periods. They found that large animals began vanishing shortly after humans arrived in new regions, with extinction rates highest where humans were most novel.
“The large and very selective loss of megafauna over the last 50,000 years is unique over the past 66 million years. Previous periods of climate change did not lead to large, selective extinctions, which argues against a major role for climate in the megafauna extinctions,” says Professor Jens-Christian Svenning, the study’s lead author, in a statement.
The researchers point out that climate change, long considered a potential cause of the extinctions, doesn’t adequately explain the patterns observed. While the late Pleistocene epoch did see significant climatic shifts, these were no more extreme than previous glacial cycles that didn’t result in mass extinctions.
“Another significant pattern that argues against a role for climate is that the recent megafauna extinctions hit just as hard in climatically stable areas as in unstable areas,” Svenning adds.
Additionally, the megafauna losses were highly selective, primarily affecting only the largest species. Smaller animals, plants, and marine life were largely unaffected. This size bias matches what we’d expect from human hunting pressure, not climate change.
The study reveals that at least 161 species of mammals were driven to extinction during this period, based on the remains found so far. The largest animals were hit the hardest — land-dwelling herbivores weighing over a ton, known as megaherbivores. Fifty thousand years ago, there were 57 species of megaherbivores. Today, only 11 remain, with even these survivors experiencing drastic population declines.
Interestingly, regions where humans had a longer evolutionary history with large animals saw less severe extinction events. In Africa and parts of Asia, where hominins had been present for millions of years, fewer megafauna species went extinct compared to the Americas and Australia. This suggests animals in Africa and Asia may have developed behaviors to avoid human predators over time. The researchers found evidence of human hunting prowess in the archaeological record.
“Early modern humans were effective hunters of even the largest animal species and clearly had the ability to reduce the populations of large animals,” notes Svenning. “These large animals were and are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation because they have long gestation periods, produce very few offspring at a time, and take many years to reach sexual maturity.”
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The loss of these ecosystem giants had profound impacts that are still shaping our world today. Large herbivores like mammoths and ground sloths played crucial roles in maintaining open habitats and dispersing nutrients across landscapes. Their disappearance likely contributed to the spread of forests and changes in fire regimes in many regions.
“Species went extinct on all continents except Antarctica and in all types of ecosystems, from tropical forests and savannas to Mediterranean and temperate forests and steppes to arctic ecosystems. Many of the extinct species could thrive in various types of environments. Therefore, their extinction cannot be explained by climate changes causing the disappearance of a specific ecosystem type, such as the mammoth steppe – which also housed only a few megafauna species,” Svenning emphasizes.
The authors argue that understanding this extinction event is crucial as we face a biodiversity crisis today. By recognizing humans’ long history of impacting animal populations, we can better inform conservation efforts. They even suggest “rewilding,” reintroducing large animals to restore lost ecological functions, as a potential conservation strategy.
“Our results highlight the need for active conservation and restoration efforts. By reintroducing large mammals, we can help restore ecological balances and support biodiversity, which evolved in ecosystems rich in megafauna,” Svenning concludes.
The study is published in the journal Cambridge Prisms: Extinction.
Methodology
The researchers conducted an extensive literature review, examining evidence from paleontology, archaeology, genetics, and ecology. They analyzed patterns of megafauna extinctions across different continents, time periods, and body size classes. The team also evaluated various hypotheses for the extinctions, including climate change and human impacts, against the observed patterns. Their review incorporated several research fields, including studies on the timing of species extinctions, animal dietary preferences, climate and habitat requirements, genetic estimates of past population sizes, and evidence of human hunting.
Results
The study found that megafauna extinctions were global in scope but varied in intensity across regions. They were strongly biased towards the largest species and temporally linked to human arrival in new areas. The extinctions were not well-explained by climate change alone. The researchers observed that at least 161 species of mammals were driven to extinction during this period, with land-dwelling herbivores weighing over a ton (megaherbivores) being the most severely affected.
Limitations
Among possible limitations of this study, the fossil record is incomplete, especially for smaller species, which can bias our understanding of extinction patterns. The dating of extinction events and human arrivals can be imprecise, making it challenging to establish exact temporal relationships. Additionally, complex interactions between humans, climate, and ecosystems are difficult to fully disentangle, especially over such long time scales.
Discussion & Takeaways
The researchers conclude that human hunting and ecosystem modification were likely the primary drivers of late Quaternary megafauna extinctions. They argue this event marks an early example of human-driven environmental change on a global scale. The study emphasizes that humans have been shaping ecosystems for tens of thousands of years and that large animals are particularly vulnerable to human impacts. The loss of megafauna had cascading effects on landscapes and ecosystems, altering vegetation structures, seed dispersal patterns, and nutrient cycling. The authors stress the importance of understanding past extinctions to inform modern conservation efforts. They suggest that rewilding with large animals may help restore lost ecological functions and support biodiversity in ecosystems that evolved with megafauna.
